Writing difficulties are generically known as dysgraphias, although they encompass problems of different natures. A first classification distinguishes between acquired dysgraphias as a consequence of a neurological injury after having acquired that skill, and developmental dysgraphias, which are characterized by a difficulty in acquiring writing without an apparent reason for it (Defior, 2000).
Central acquired dysgraphias are characterized by the alteration of one of the pathways to access the lexicon (Defior, 2000). Thus, there are phonological dysgraphics, who present a disorder in the mechanism of converting phonemes into graphemes and can only use the lexical route. The main manifestation of this difficulty is the inability to write pseudowords; they also make derivational errors and errors in functional words (Defior, 2000).
There are also surface dysgraphics who can only use the phonological route because their lexical or orthographic route is impaired. They manifest a difficulty in retrieving the correct orthographic patterns of words that do not conform to rules, such as irregular, homophonous, or polygraphic words (Defior, 2000).
In contrast, deep dysgraphia is characterized by impairment of both routes, so patients have difficulties with both irregular words and pseudowords. Semantic dysgraphias are those in which patients can write words from dictation but do not understand their meaning. Peripheral dysgraphias involve motor disorders and are caused by a lesion in the processes subsequent to lexical access (Defior, 2000).
Developmental dysgraphias are known as initial writing learning difficulties without an objective reason for them, since children have had adequate schooling, have normal intellectual capacity, a problem-free family environment, emotional development without blockages, or correct perceptual and motor processes. In short, there is no apparent reason to justify their difficulties (Defior, 2000).
The main problem for children is usually at the lexical level; thus, phonological dysgraphics present greater problems in the development of the phonological pathway and the mastery of phoneme-grapheme conversion rules (PGCR), which translates into greater difficulty in writing pseudowords than in writing words (Defior, 2000).
Another group, surface dysgraphics, have problems establishing the orthographic route and, therefore, make a greater number of errors in irregular or unfamiliar words than in regular ones. Therefore, the difficulties lie in the establishment of one of the two pathways, either the one that involves the application of PGCR, which leads them to confuse some graphemes, with a particular incidence of so-called mirror writing, or the one that requires the storage and recall of correct orthographic forms, which leads them to make many spelling errors (Defior, 2000).
However, it is most common for children to present difficulties in both (mixed dysgraphia) since, as it is a system in the process of acquisition, the inadequate development of one route also hinders the development of the other. Unlike acquired dysgraphia, semantic errors have not been observed in children (Defior, 2000).
In addition to developmental dysgraphia, other writing difficulties can be characterized as writing delay, which, unlike the former, do not present the character of an unexpected problem, since there is some reason (school absenteeism, low IQ, low sociocultural environment, etc.) that could explain this delay (Defior, 2000).
Improving Basic Writing. Recommendations:
– Avoid unsupervised initial practice, which leads to the consolidation of habits difficult to correct later.
– Provide immediate correction of errors.
– Involve the child in the analysis of their errors, making them aware of them.
– Provide detailed models of the motor patterns for each letter.
– Avoid low-value activities such as repeated copying of the same word or phrase.
– Foster a positive attitude towards the correct formation of letters, highlighting their importance for achieving legible handwriting.
Improving Written Composition. Recommendations:
– Ensure the child possesses the necessary prerequisite skills for acquiring the target writing strategy.
– Discuss in advance the objectives to be achieved and their meaning so that the child understands the benefits of the training.
– Explicit description of the strategy, emphasizing the how and why of each step in using the strategy.
– Modeling of the strategy and self-instructions by the expert, which the child must then express in their own words.
– Strategy learning, a phase in which the steps to follow are memorized and previously generated self-instructions are practiced, with the support of “Thinking Cards”.
– Cooperative practice of strategies and self-instructions, together with the child to provide guidance on execution and information on the results being achieved.
– Independent execution of the strategy and self-instructions, without help.
– Generalization and maintenance, so that the child uses the strategies and self-instructions in other tasks and situations.